A structural principle is needed to explain the dynamic interactions of needs and their fulfillments. These attempt to explain the factors that motivate individuals through identifying and satisfying their individual needs, desires and the aims pursued to satisfy these desires. EVALUATION OF MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY Despite its vagueness and lack of adequate empirical support (Wahba and Bridwell, 1976), Maslow's need hierarchy has influenced the work of numerous psychologists (Argyris, 1964; Clark, 1960; Dichter, 1964; Leavitt, 1964; McGregor, 1960; Schein, 1965). This is especially true for the functional, social, and curiosity motives. Some products are selected for their conspicuousness only ("conversation pieces"), sometimes in combination with aesthetic motives. It seems to be influenced more by Lewin's field theory in that it involves the perceptual analysis of (1) alternatives with their (2) desirabilities and (3) expectancies, and their (4) outcomes in the immediate psychological field. The five motivational dimensions are (Sheth, 1975): (1) functional motives, (2) aesthetic-emotional motives, (3) social motives, (4) situational motives, and (5) curiosity motives. This composite measure, U., is expected to cover the five dimensions outlined above. Consumer Behavior Chapter 10 Flashcards Quizlet. In the depth interview method no particular forms and orders of motives should be elicited with the help of probing questions, incomplete sentences and the Kelly grid method. (1974). J. S. Duessenberry, Income, Saving and the Theory of Consumer Behavior, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949. That said, a study by the Gallup Organization, as detailed in the book First, Break All the Rules: What the World's Greatest Managers Do by Marcus Buckingham and Curt Coffman, appears to provide strong support for Herzberg's division of satisfaction and dissatisfaction onto two separate scales. To summarize, equity is useful in two ways for consumer research. William James (1890) and William McDougall (1923) made lists of instincts that were seem as mainsprings of all kinds of behaviors, simple and complex. While hygiene factors are related to the need to avoid unpleasantness, motivation factors more directly lead to job satisfaction because of the need of the individual for self-growth and self-actualization.. Here, an inequitable relation motivates the consumer to restore equity, that means he is motivated to bring his consumption level and pattern into agreement with that of his reference group. Herzberg's Two Factor Theory is a "content theory" of motivation " (the other main one is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs). ), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2, New York: Academic Press, 1965. That is, there is cognitive association between a specific product class or the buying of a certain product from a set of product classes, and the expectation that the product contributes to the attainment of a goal or the satisfaction of a motivational dimension. REFERENCES J. S. Adams, "Inequity in Social Exchange," in L. Berkowitz (ed. The second type of attributes (facilitators) give rise to satisfaction, is their level is above a certain threshold. A number of factors seem to have favored the appeal of Maslow's need hierarchy, while the lack of foresight among researchers and the absence of standardized measurement techniques seem to have forestalled the comprehensive evaluation of the interdisciplinary approaches. A. H. Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation," Psychological Review, 50(1943), 370-96. Consumer behaviour ramanuj majumdar SlideShare. Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. This is especially true for the functional, social, and curiosity motives. J. W. Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation, New York: Van Nostrand, 1964. In the decision process the consumer will avoid brands that give rise to dissatisfaction through the application of the conjunctive decision rule. A. K. Korman, The Psychology of Motivation, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974. M. J. Rosenberg, "Cognitive Structure and Attitudinal Affect," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53 (November 1956), 367-72. Benjamin Scheibehenne, Geneva School of Economics and Management. This theory suggests that to improve job attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to decrease in dissatisfaction. Physiological motives or primary motives 2. The personal constructs are clustered and compared to the theory of Herzberg. J. P. Campbell and R. D. Pritchard, "Motivation Theory in Industrial and Organizational Psychology," in M. D. Dunnette (ed. Tohidinia, Z., & Mosakhani, M. (2010). The concept of equity may be explicitly stated as the even exchange of values such that what is received is presumed to be equal to what is given (Adams, 1965). However, it has to be pointed out that (1) it is not prior known how equity is created and what its upper and lower limits are; (2) promotional activities make the equity relation relative and situation-affected, depending on whether the purchase has been prompted by a deal or not, for instance; (3) consumers tend to "satisfice" (March and Simon, 1958), and do not necessarily maximize as implied in the equity concept (e.g., Pritchard, 1969). It has to be emphasized that the motivational model suggested here is mainly applicable to consumers' product choices, involving large financial outlays or high perceived social and/or physical risk. Regarding the collection process: Briefly, we asked our respondents to describe periods in their lives when they were exceedingly happy and unhappy with their jobs. According to Herzberg, motivating factors (also called job satisfiers) are primarily intrinsic job elements that lead to satisfaction. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory are two popular theories that are often used in the field of organizational behavior and management. Hygiene factors include company policies, supervision, salary, work relationships, work conditions, and job security. This approach to the study and understanding of motivation would appear to have certain conceptual advantages over other theories: First, unlike Maslow's and Herzberg's theories, it is capable of handling individual differences. Conflicts in Consumer Behavior Motivation Bizfluent. Providing regular and continuous feedback on productivity and. The two-factor theory has not been well supported by research. For a large disparity, a contrast effect is more likely; the disparity is too great to be bridged by the acquisition of a product. The consumer necessarily, unlike in the specific choice situation, has to "compute" an overall utility for each product class to see whether it satisfies a number of motives, and then compare these overall utilities to make a final choice. Attempting to address the controversy over whether monetary compensation is a motivating poor hygiene factor, the researchers used a questionnaire to ask 144 mid-level managers about what factors influenced their job satisfaction most. H. J. Leavitt, Managerial Psychology, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964 (second edition). T. Roselius, "Consumer Rankings of Risk Reduction Methods,'' Journal of Marketing, 35 (January 1971), 56-61. Further, motives become salient if a disparity exists between a desired goal state and the actual state on a motivational dimension. By implication, the rating of importance of job satisfaction seems to be positively related to the level of the job one holds (Porter, 1961; Porter and Mitchell, 1967) or "that the deprivation domination principle may only be operative in the case of the deprivation of the lower-order needs, especially physiological needs" (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976, p. 231). ), Psychology: The Study of a Science, New York: McGraw-Hill, Vol. The need achievement model (Table 1) attributes the strength of motivation to the cognitive expectation that the action will result in the consequence. J. S. Armstrong, "Role Conflict in Marketing or the Ox and the Fox," Oslo: Symposium, "New Directions in Marketing," 1976. "Outputs or outcomes refer to the primary functional aspects of the alternatives in the product set; they are the basic purpose for buying and using the product. Generally, criticisms of the theory focus on Herzbergs methodology and assumptions. His need hierarchy is by no means definitive, and is rather out of focus in comparison with the role of learning, perception, values, and expectations in human behavior (Atkinson, 1964). B. Clark," Motivation in Work Groups: A Tentative View," Human Organization, 13, (1960-61), 198-208. An example would be allowing employees to create a whole unit or section instead of only allowing them to create part of it. Herzberg two factor theory wasim153 23.3K views9 slides. Another problem however is that these and other statistical theories are concerned with explaining "average" behavior, despite considerable differences between individuals that may impact one's motivational factors. Figure 1 gives the sequence of the three choice levels as they occur in consumer decision making regarding travel. J. F. Engel, D. T. Kollat and R. D. Blackwell, Consumer Behavior, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973 (second edition). The application of the equity concept of consumer behavior may be restricted to some aspects of consumption. J Appl Psychol, 2(1), 17-24. The factor that differentiates two-factor theory from the others we've discussed is the role of employee expectations. The need achievement concept is only applicable in cases where the consumer perceives some risk of failure. His need hierarchy is by no means definitive, and is rather out of focus in comparison with the role of learning, perception, values, and expectations in human behavior (Atkinson, 1964). A distinction is sometimes made between deficiency and growth needs. Creating complete and natural work units where it is possible. The combination of product attributes forms the total functional utility of a product. Murray, however, distinguished a directional aspect and an arousal component that actually kicks the behavior off and that can be motivated in a number of ways. Paper presented at the International conference on online communities and social computing. ), Understanding Human Motivation, Cleveland/New York: The World Publishing Company, 1965. Assuming that If = -Ps = 1 (a particular outcome is either a success or a failure). J. S. Armstrong, "Role Conflict in Marketing or the Ox and the Fox," Oslo: Symposium, "New Directions in Marketing," 1976. This curvilinear relationship between motive strength and disparity may be effectively compared with Berlyne's (1963) exploratory behavior theory and the level of arousal potential. The consumer may try a new product; however, his repeat-purchase may be independent of such trials. L. W. Porter and V. F. Mitchell, "Comparative Study of Need Satisfactions in Military and Business Hierarchies," Journal of Applied Psychology, 51 (April 1967), R. D. Pritchard, "Equity Theory: A Review and Critique," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4 (May 1969), 176-211. This curvilinear relationship between motive strength and disparity may be effectively compared with Berlyne's (1963) exploratory behavior theory and the level of arousal potential. The selection of a product may be triggered by situational determinants such as availability, price discount, and/or accessibility. Lack of gratification of a motivational dimension increases the evaluation of that motive (the deprivation/domination principle). W. F. Van Raaij, Consumer Choice Behavior: An Information Processing Approach, Voorschoten: VAM, 1977. Problems can often be external to the job. Herzberg's two-factor theory is a motivation theory that suggests that satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work are influenced by two sets of factors: hygiene factors and motivators.. Hygiene factors are basic job necessities, such as working conditions and salary, that, if not met, can cause dissatisfaction.. Motivators, such as recognition and achievement, drive job satisfaction and motivation. These situational factors apply usually for a specific brand or type. The Herzberg motivation theory is a simple, yet powerful tool which still forms the bedrock of motivational practices today and is used to help organisations create the optimum environment to motivation in its individuals. Absence of necessary attributes gives rise to dissatisfaction, while the presence of motivating attributes leads to satisfaction. Agnes Scholz, University of Zurich The other half would be to increase satisfaction in the workplace. C. N. Cofer and M. H. Appley, Motivation: Theory and Research, New York: Wiley, 1964. A. Howard and J. N. Sheth, The Theory of Buyer Behavior, New York: Wiley, 1969. If no inhibitors are present, a "zero point" has been reached. Although heavily critiqued, Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory still greatly influences current methodology, particularly in a number of modern Asian workplace studies (Robbins and Judge, 2013). As Jacoby (1976) points out, Herzberg's propositions as well as the findings cited before are involved with the determinants of satisfaction/dissatisfaction and not with performance. The main difference, however, is that it includes the probability of attaining a goal and a probability of failure. H. P. Dachler and C. L. Hulin, "A Reconsideration of the Relationship Between Satisfaction and Judged Importance of Environment and Job Characteristics," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, (August 1969), 252-66. 1 standards of desired behaviour 2 motivation to meet these standards . Two ways exist to increase the tendency to achieve (Ta): (1) Increase the approach tendency (Ts) by making the product more attractive, and (2) decrease the "avoidance" tendency (Tf) by reducing perceived risk (see Roselius (1971) for possible risk relievers). The motivating factors, when fulfilled, give rise to job satisfaction. Thus, it may be contended that individuals tend to select those product classes that match with their life styles and enable them to express their fundamental values. Apparently, equity theory may be applied to social relations such as management-worker and seller-buyer. Kassaye Wandwossen, Tilburg University, NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 05 | 1978, Marina Puzakova, Lehigh University In consumer research, we may distinguish between necessary product attributes (hygienic factors) and motivating product attributes. (3) It fails to note that some repetitive buying behavior is influenced by simple S-R relationships, or may even be stochastic, making motivational models too elaborate or irrelevant for this kind of buying behavior. The second type of attributes (facilitators) give rise to satisfaction, is their level is above a certain threshold. Generally, these factors encouraging job satisfaction relate to self-growth and self-actualization. 3, 1969 (second edition). Herzberg thought it was important to eliminate job dissatisfaction before going onto creating conditions for job satisfaction because it would work against each other. 'Motivation to Work' is a landmark Expectancy-Value Models The basis for expectancy models has been made by Tolman (1932) and Lewin (1938). Cognitive motivation models fall into three broad categories: equity, need achievement and expectancy-value models (see Table 1). (1) The daily purchases are mostly over and above what is (basically) needed. 3. Subsequently, a selection of a modal or method within the product class is made. In the first of these studies, Heizberg asked 13 labourers, clerical workers, foreman, plant engineers and accountants to describe, in detail, situations where they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs (Robbins and Judge, 2013). W. A. Davis, "The Motivation of the Underprivileged Worker," in W. F. Whyte (ed. "Outputs or outcomes refer to the primary functional aspects of the alternatives in the product set; they are the basic purpose for buying and using the product. L. W. Porter and E. E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance, Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1968. D. E. Berlyne, "Motivational Problems Raised by Exploratory and Epistemic Behavior," in K. Sigmund (ed. Situational motives are not motives in the sense of long-term desires to reach a certain goal. The factors on the right that led to satisfaction (achievement, intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. [7] Motivation factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance. Social motives are related to the impact that consumption makes on relevant others. Provide effective, supportive and non-intrusive supervision. Need achievement resembles Maslow's (1970) self-actualization motive in a number of ways. The first type of attributes (inhibitors) give rise to dissatisfaction, if their level is below a certain threshold. The only difference is that in the approach-avoidance paradigm unsatisfactory attributes can be compensated by satisfactory product attributes. Thus the behavior or behavioral intention (BI) of the consumer equals the maximum of Uj (j=1, ..,m) if m product classes are considered,o. In effect, this diagram of expectancy depicts an employee asking themselves the question posed by one investigator, "How much payoff is there for me toward attaining a personal goal while expending so much effort toward the achievement of an assigned organizational objective? As with Herzberg's (1966) two-factor model, an equitable relation as perceived by the consumer prevents the elicitation of dissatisfaction. Herzberg (1959) considers two types of factors that can add to or detract from job satisfaction: hygiene and motivation factors. On the other hand, and equitable relation is a necessary but not a sufficient prerequisite for consumer satisfaction. Existence, relatedness, and growth: Human needs in organizational settings. Measurement of nurse practitioner job satisfaction in a Midwestern state. Frederick Irving Herzberg (April 18, 1923 - January 19, 2000) was an American psychologist who became one of the most influential names in business management. J. G. March and H. Simon, Organizations, New York: Wiley, 1958. Journal of Marketing Research. These so-called satisfiers (motivational factors) and dissatisfiers (a lack of hygiene factors) are dynamic, constantly interacting, highly subject to change, and relative to the employee (Misener and Cox, 2001). In a deprived environment, lower-order needs (existence hygienic) needs seem to be more important than higher order need, (Cofer and Appley, 1964; Porter, 1961, 1962; Porter and Mitchell, 1967). Frederick Herzberg's dual-factor theory is used by companies across the globe, and understanding how it works can go a long way in . E. H. Schein, Organizational Psychology, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965. Want to cite, share, or modify this book? To achieve growth needs, deficiency needs must first be satisfied. no longer considered to exist on separate scales. Other criticisms focus on the unreliability of Herzbergs methodology, the fact that the theory ignores the impact of situational variables, and the assumed relationship between satisfaction and productivity. W. McDougall, Outline of Psychology, Boston: Scribner's, 1923. 112-14). Instead, dissatisfaction results from unfavorable assessments of such job-related factors as company policies, supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions.
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